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Seating Arrangements
There are several accepted arrangements for symphony orchestra seating; however, the first violins are always to the conductor's left and the percussion in the back of the orchestra. The position of the other instruments often varies depending on the conductor's preference and the acoustical qualities of the performance space.
Size
Generally, a full symphony orchestra has 75 to 90 members (sometimes smaller for Baroque- and Classical-period works, sometimes larger for late-Romantic, 20th or 21st century works). An orchestra is comprised of four sections: String Section - the largest group of the orchestra, with approximately 14 first violins, 12 second violins, 10 violas, 8 cellos, 8 double basses; Woodwinds - piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon; Brass - 4 French horns, 4 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba; Harps - 1 or 2; Percussion - timpani or kettledrums, bass and side drum, glockenspiel, triangle, cymbals, etc.
These instruments vary depending on the composer's orchestration and the conductor's interpretive decisions; certain compositions require additional instruments (according to the composer's orchestration), such as another French horn, a saxophone, supplementary percussion, a piano (not as a solo instrument, referred to as orchestra piano), an organ, etc. Also, the composer may specify fewer standard instruments than are normally employed.
Concertmaster
The "first-chair" violinist (to the conductor's immediate left) supervises the tuning of the orchestra and is a vital liaison between the conductor and the orchestra.
Principal Player
The lead player of each orchestral section who is required to guide the section and who performs any solo parts written for that particular instrument.
Section Player
Members of each section other than the principal.
Tuning
Just before the concert begins, the orchestra tunes to the note "A" that is initially provided by the principal oboe and then supervised by the concertmaster.
The Instruments
The String Section
The violin is the highest-pitched member of the string choir; the viola, somewhat larger than the violin, is lower in range; the violoncello (popularly known as cello and pronounced "chello"), is lower in range than the viola, notable for its lyrical quality and dark resonance; the double bass , the largest member of the string choir and the lowest in range, furnishes vital support for the entire orchestra. They are all played with a bow, causing the string to vibrate, except when the composer indicates "pizzicato" ("plucked") strings. Traditionally, the player bows with the right hand. The left hand is used to press down or "stop" the string, changing the length of the string that vibrates which in turn alters the pitch produced. "Double-stopping" involves playing two strings simultaneously; when three or four strings are played simultaneously, it is called "triple- or quadruple-stopping" (each level of stops is progressively more difficult). The hair of the bow is rubbed with a substance known as rosin so that it will better grip the strings. The string section makes up approximately 70% of a symphony orchestra.
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The Woodwind Section
With these instruments the tone is produced by a column of air vibrating within a pipe that has holes on its side. When one or another of these holes is opened or closed, the length of the vibrating air column within the pipe is changed, thus changing the pitch. Nowadays, they are not necessarily made of wood, but the name has been retained.
The piccolo (from the Italian flauto piccolo, "little flute") has a piercing tone that produces the highest notes in the orchestra. The flute is the soprano voice of the woodwind choir. The present-day piccolo and flute is made of silver alloy (sometimes gold) rather than wood, as in the past (with one end closed), and it is held horizontally. To produce a sound, the player positions his or her lips (known as embouchure) across a mouth hole cut in the side of the pipe.
The oboe is made of wood. Its mouthpiece is a double reed (two pieces of cane bound together, leaving an extremely small passage for air). Because the pitch of the oboe is not easily subject to change, thus is more stable, it is chosen to sound the note "A" for the other instruments to tune the orchestra. The English horn is an alto (lower) oboe. Amusingly, it is neither English nor a horn! - another one of those idiosyncrasies in music history.
The clarinet has a single reed, fastened against a wooden mouthpiece, leaving a small space for the passage of air. The bass clarinet is one octave lower in range than the clarinet.
The bassoon , a double-reed instrument, has a weighty tone in the low register, a sonorous tone in the middle and reedy and intense in the upper. The contrabassoon (or double bassoon) produces the lowest tone in the orchestra. Its tube, over sixteen feet in length, is folded four times around for practical reasons. Like the double bass in the string section, it supplies orchestral support and foundation for the harmony.
[top] The Brass Section
The French horn , generally referred to simply as horn , is descended from the ancient hunting horn. Its golden resonance lends itself to a variety of uses, soft and loud, though best in sustained utterances.
The trumpet , highest pitch in the brass choir, possesses a firm, brilliant timbre.
The trombone (an Italian word that means "large trumpet") combines the brilliance of the trumpet with the majesty of the horn. Unlike the valves used by the horn and trumpet to alter pitch, the trombone has a moveable U-shaped slide that alters the length of the vibrating air column and consequently the pitch produced.
The tuba is the bass of the brass choir, furnishing a foundation for the harmonic structure. It too utilizes a valve system to alter the pitches or notes produced.
[top] The Percussion Section
This section comprises a variety of instruments that are made to sound by striking or shaking, and made of metal or wood; others, such as the drums, attain vibration by striking a stretched skin. Percussion instruments fall into two categories: those that can be tuned to specific pitches and those that can only produce a single sound (unpitched).
Tuned percussion most often includes:
- timpani (also known as kettledrums), which are generally used in sets of two or three (each tuned to a different pitch), and are played with two padded sticks;
- glockenspiel (German for "set of bells") consists of a series of steel, horizontally tuned plates of various sizes; the player strikes these plates with mallets that produce a bright metallic sound;
- Celeste , who in appearance resembles a miniature upright piano, is a kind of glockenspiel that is operated by a keyboard, thus the steel plates are struck by small hammers that produce a more fragile sound.
Unpitched percussion include a snare drum played with drumsticks, a bass drum, played with a large, soft-headed stick, the tambourine, chimes, wood block, castanets, triangle, cymbals, etc. Generally, from three to five players take care of the percussion.
A composer orchestrates (assigning of instruments) a work depending on the particular sound desired. Each instrument, with its unique timbre and capability, provides a different color and character to the composition.
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Text (c) Lynne S. Mazza
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